Content and Process Theories of Work Motivation

Content and Process Theories of Work pauperizationThe work exigency theories erect be broadly classified as gist theories and mathematical carry through theories. The content theories argon concerned with identifying the ineluctably that people leave and how take be prioritized. They atomic number 18 concerned with types of incentives that drive people to attain demand fulfillment. The Maslow pecking order conjecture, Fredrick Herzbergs two factor opening and Alderfers ERG involve theory coin in this category. Although such a content approach has logic, is at large(p) to understand, and gutter be readily translated in practice, the research evidence points out limitations. thither is very itsy-bitsy research support for these postures theoretical basic and predictability. The allot off for simplicity sacrifices true understanding of the complexity of work penury. On the positive side, however, the content modellings have given emphasis to important content fa ctors that were largely ignored by valet relationists. In addition the Alderfers ERG inevitably theory allows more flexibility and Herzbergs two-factor theory is affairful as an score for transaction satisfaction and as a point of departure for job design.The process theories atomic number 18 concerned with the cognitive antecedents that go into want and with the focussing they are hitd to one a nonher. The theories given by roar, Porter and Lawler, rectitude theory and attribution theory fall in this category. These theories provide a often sounder explanation of work motivations. The foresight model of Vroom and the extensions and the refinements provided by Porter and Lawler help explain the important cognitive variables and how they relate to one some other in the process of work motivation. The Porter Lawler model too gives proper(postnominal) attention to the important relationship between surgical procedure and satisfaction. A growing research lit dateture is somewhat supportive of these apprehension models, but conceptual and methodological problems remain. Unlike the content models, these expectancy models are relatively complex and difficult to translate into actual practice. They have also failed to meet the goals of prediction and control motivation Theory 1 Adams truth Theory of Work MotivationThe theory explains that a major commentary into job performance and satisfaction is the degree of rectitude or shabbiness that people perceive in work situations. Adam depicts a precise process of how this motivation go acrosss.Inequality occurs when a individual perceives that the ratio of his or her final results to inputs and the ratio of a pertinent others outcomes to inputs are unequal.Our Outcomes Our Inputs Others InputsOur Outcomes = Others Outcomes = EquityOur Inputs Others InputsOur Outcomes Others Outcomes = Inequity (over-rewarded)Our Inputs Others Inputs some(prenominal) the inputs and the outputs of the person and t he other are based upon the persons perceptions, which are affected by age, sex, education, tender status, organisational position, qualifications, and how hard the person works, etc. Outcomes consist in the main of rewards such as pay, status, promotion, and intrinsic interest in the job. Equity sensitiveness is the ratio based upon the persons perception of what the person is giving (inputs) and receiving (outcomes) versus the ratio of what the relevant is giving and receiving. This cognition whitethorn or whitethorn not be the same as someone elses observation of the ratios or the same as the actual situation.If the persons perceived ratio is not equal to the others, he or she will strive to restore the ratio to equity. This striving to restore equity is utilize as the explanation of work motivation. The strength of this motivation is in direct proportion to the perceived inequity that exists.Research suggests that soulfulnesss engage in illegal miens to maintain equity in relationships, either with their employing organization or with other people (Greenberg, 1990).The theory was later expanded with the concept of organisational Justice. Organizational adeptice reflects the extend to which people perceive that they are moorage-hardened fairly at work. It identified three different components of justice apportionable (The perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed), procedural (The perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make al localisation of function finales) and interactional (The perceived fairness of the decision makers behavior in the process of decision-making). (Copanzano, Rupp, Mohler and Schminke, 2001).CritiquesEquity theory is descriptive and it reflects a great deal of our allday experience. As a theory however equity is wholly if partial in analysis and as a predictor. at that place are m both societal and institutional variables (inequalities) that we all navigate. The theory ignores peo ples natural resilience, their competitiveness, self-sacrifice and selfishness, their ethical dilemmas in decision-making and their passions.It does not adequately explain interactions in underweight relationships such as marriage or emotional labor where we may provide care to others at a burdensome cost of declining ad hominem well-organism and self-denial. Norms of equity and reciprocity are often discounted in blind drunk and romantic friendships or where at that place are deep family bonds.In the social exchanges of seam, causal, or stranger relationships, there may be more of a dominant assumption that inputs are offered with the expectation of a like response. There is more of a formal contract of tangible and intangible reward. A promise unfulfilled, without proper reciprocity incurs a debt of honor. A promise is broken. In our community, obligations of reciprocal response operate. We are evaluate to apply the Golden blueprint and to help where we flush toilet an act ably demonstrated by the fable of the Good Samaritan.Social exchange theory assumes rational, calculated action involving an expected pay-off. We do not always act rationally. Many will not be as selfish as rational action may suggest. Indeed our reward may be the inner glow of respecting oneself and aliment to ones own values. Such altruism, albeit self-referential, does not sit easily under the assumptions of the rational, economic-person model.ImplicationsIt is indispensable to pay attention to what employees perceive to be fair and honest. For example In my company, one of my colleagues was assigned to a project that required him to work during non business hours frequently. He worked three eld at the office and two days at home in a week for a calendar month and half. This caused others to start working from home during business hours.Allow employees to have a voice and an opportunity to appeal. Organizational changes, promoting cooperation, etc. can come easier with e quitable outcomes.Managements failure to achieve equity could be costly for the organization. For example virtuoso of my technically team members was not very competent. He took double the snip to complete any give work when compared to the others. Management failed to take any action instead the others were given more work. Eventually, even the competent workers took it easy to restore equity causing project delays.Motivation Theory 2 Vrooms Expectancy Theory of MotivationExpectancy theory provides a mannequin for analyzing work motivation, which is eminently practical. It provides a checklist of factors to be considered in any managerial situation and it points to the links between the relevant factors and the direction, which these factors tend to follow in their interrelationships. (Tony J. Watson, Routledge Kegan Paul, 1986).Expectancy theory holds that people are triggerd to behave in ways that produce desire combinations of expected outcomes. It can be used to predict m otivation and behavior in any situation in which a choice between two or more alternatives essential be made. (Kreitner R. Kinicki A., Mcgraw Hill, 7th Edition). Vroom gave the following equation of MotivationMotivation (M) = Valence (V) x Expectancy (E)Valence stands for the preference of an individual for a position outcome. Thus, when an individual desires a particular outcome the value of V is positive. On the other hand when the individual does not desire a certain outcome, the value of V is negative.The value of expectancy ranges between nobody and one. When a certain event will definitely not occur the value of E is zero. On the other hand when the event is accredited to occur the value of E is one.Since its original conception, the expectancy theory model has been refined and extended many times. The better k flat of all is the Porter-Lawler model. Although stodgy wisdom argues that satisfaction leads to performance, Porter and Lawler argued the reverse. If rewards are adequate, high take aims of performance may lead to satisfaction. In addition to the features included in the original expectancy model, the Porter-Lawler model includes abilities, traits, and role perceptions.CritiquesVrooms theory does not directly contribute to the techniques of do people. It is of value in understanding organizational behavior. It clarifies the relation between individuals and the organizational goals. The model is designed to help management understand and analyze employee motivation and identify some to the relevant variables. However, the theory falls short of providing specific solutions to the motivational problems.The theory also does not take into account the individual differences based on individual perceptions nor does it assume that most people have the same hierarchy of unavoidably. It treats as a variable to be investigated just what it is that particular employees are seeking in their work. Thus the theory indicates only the conceptional deter minants of motivation and how they are related.Research studies have confirmed that the standoff of both kinds of expectancies and valences with effort and performance. The motivated behavior of people arises from their valuing expected rewards, believe effort will lead to performance, and that performance will result in desired rewards.The expectancy theory explains motivation in the U.S. better than elsewhere and therefore may not be suitable for other regions.ImplicationsThis theory can be used by the managers toDetermine the primary outcome each employee wants.Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals.Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible.Link desired outcomes and desired performance.Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations.Make sure the rewards are large enough.Make sure the overall system is equitable for allone.Motivation Theory 3 Maslows Theory of Hierarchy of NeedMaslow believed that within every indi vidual, there exists a hierarchy of five needs and that each level of need must be satisfied before an individual pursues the adjoining higher level of need (Maslow, 1943). As an individual progresses through the assorted levels of needs, the proceeding needs loose their motivational value.The basic human needs placed by Maslow in an ascending order of importance can be summarized and shown as belowThe desire to become what one is competent of becoming.These are the needs to be held in esteem both by oneself and by others.These are the needs to belong and to be accepted by various groups.These are the needs to be free of physical danger. The sentry duty needs look to the future.These are the basic needs for sustaining human manner itself, such as food, water, warmth, shelter, and sleep.Maslow in his later work (Maslow, 1954) said comfort of the self-actualization need causes an increase in its importance rather than a decrease. desire deprivation of a given need, results in fix ation for that need.Higher needs may emerge not after gratification, but rather by long deprivation, renunciation or suppression of lower needs.Human behavior is multi-determined and multi-motivated.CritiquesPart of the appeal of Maslows theory is that it provides both a theory of human motives by classifying basic human needs in a hierarchy and the theory of human motivation that relates these needs to general behavior. Maslows major component part lies in the hierarchical concept. He was the first to recognize that a need once satisfied is a spent force and ceases to be a motivator.Maslows need hierarchy presents a paradox in as much as while the theory is widely accepted, there is a little research evidence available to support the theory.It is said that beyond structuring needs in a certain fashion Maslow does not give concrete guidance to the managers as to how they should motivate their employees.ImplicationsThe need hierarchy as postulated by Maslow does not appear in practi ce. It is likely that over fulfillment of anyones particular need may result in fixation for the need. In that case even when a particular need is satisfied a person may still engage in the fulfillment of the same need. Furthermore, in a normal human existence, all the needs are not always satisfied entirely. There remains an unsatisfied corner of every need in spite of which the person seeks fulfillment of the higher need.A person may move on to the next need in spite of the lower need being unfulfilled or being partly fulfilled.ConclusionNo single motivation theory can suffice in todays workplace. Each motivational theory has its pros and cons. A theory may get the highest performance from an employee but may not from another employee.The organizations workplace has changed dramatically in the past decade. Companies are both lay off and expanding (often at the same time, in different divisions or levels of the hierarchy). Work is being out-sourced to various regions and countrie s. The workforce is characterized by increased diversity with highly diverging needs and demands. Information technology has frequently changed both the manner and location of work activities. New organizational forms (such as e-commerce) are now common. Teams are redefining the notion of hierarchy, as well as traditional power distributions. The use of contingent workers is on the rise and globalization and the challenges of managing across borders are now the norm. These changes have had a profound influence on how companies attempt to attract, retain, and motivate their employees.Yet we lack bare-assed models capable of guiding managers in this new era of work. As management scholar Peter Cappelli notes, Most observers of the somatic world believe that the traditional relationship between employer and employee is gone, but there is little understanding of why it ended and even less somewhat what is replacing that relationship (Cappelli, 1999). I believe that the existing work motivation and job performance theories are inadequate to cater to the present era of such diverse workforce. New theories of motivation are required to proportionate with this new era.