MANAGERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS PEOPLE Essay

The way in which passenger vehicles climax the performance of their stage businesss and the deportment they display towards stamp d avow staff is likely to be conditioned by predispositions intimately pile, and human nature and pull in.Drawing on Maslows hierarchy of inevitably model (which is discussed in Chapter 12), McGregor put forward two suppositions well-nigh human nature and behaviour at tempt. He argues that the style of management adopted is a function of the directors attitudes towards the great unwashed and assumptions about human nature and behaviour. The two suppositions be called guess X and hypothesis Y, and are based on polar assumptions about people and book.Theory Xassumptionsabout humannatureTheory X represents the carrot-and-stick assumptions on which conventional formations are based, and was widely accepted and practised sooner the festering of the human relations approach. Its assumptions are thatthe average person is lazy and has an inhere nt dislike of work most people must be coerced, go outled, order and threatened with punishment if the organisation is to accomplish its objectivesthe average person avoids responsibility, prefers to be directed, lacks ambition and values security most of allandmotivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels.The important principle of Theory X is direction and control through a modify system of organisation and the exercise of pronouncement. McGregor questions whether the Theory X approach to human nature is correct, and the relevance function away of management practices which are based upon it. Assumptions based on a Theory X approach, and the traditional use of rewards and sanctions exercised by the nature of the managers position and authority, are likely to result in an exploitative or authoritarian style of management.Theory Yassumptionsabout humannatureAt the former(a) extreme to Theory X is Theory Y which represents the assumptions consistent with cur rent research knowledge. The central principle of Theory Y is the integration of individual and organisational goals. Its assumptions arefor most people work is as innate(p) as play or counterweightpeople get out exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which they are committedcommitment to objectives is a function of rewards associated with their achievement given the cover conditions, the average worker muckle learn to accept and to seek responsibilitythe capacity for creativity in solving organisational problems is distributed widely in the populationthe bright potential of the average person is only partially utilised and motivation occurs at the affiliation, esteem and self-actualisation levels as well as the physiological and security levels.McGregor implies that a Theory Y approach is the best way to elicit co-operation from members of an organisation. It is the task of management to create the conditions in which individuals may satisfy their motivational require, and in which they achieve their own goals through meeting the goals of the organisation. McGregor develops an analysis of the implications of accepting Theory Y in regard to performance appraisal, administration of salaries and promotions, participation, staffline relationships, lead, management development and the managerial team.managerial conduct AND EFFECTIVENESSManagerial strategiesAlthough Theory X and Theory Y are based on polar extremes and are an oversimplification, they do represent identifiable philosophies which influence managerial behaviour and strategies. For example, as Lord Sieff comments Now and again it is necessary to criticize people, but rather than tick them off, provided you can leave them in no doubt as to what the issue is, I am sure it pays to avoid being censorious but try sort of to appeal to the innate capacity for self-criticism. Whatever you do, avoid making a mountain out of a molehill.Most people permit the potential to be self-motivating. They can best achieve their personal goals through self-direction of their efforts towards meeting the goals of the organisation. Broadening educational standards and changing social values mean that people today have wider expectations of the quality of working life, including opportunities for consultation and participation in decisions which affect them. Managers should develop practices based to a greater extent on an accurate understanding of human behaviour and motivation. The Theory Y approach, however, is non a buggy option. In practice it is often difficultto achieve successfully. It can be frustrating and succession-consuming, and mistakes ordain occur.Since 1952 Ive been stumbling around buildings and running primitive Theory Y departments, divisions, and finally one whole Theory Y company Avis. In 1962, aft(prenominal) thirteen years, Avis had neer made a profit (except one year when they jiggled their depreciation rates). Three years later t he company had grown internationally (not by acquisitions) from $30 one thousand thousand in sales to $75 million in sales, and had made successive annual profits of $1 million, $3 million, and $5 million. If I had anything to do with this, I ascribe it all to my application of Theory Y. And a faltering, stumbling, groping, mistake-ridden application it was.Robert Townsend6Demands ofthe situationThe two views of Theory X and Theory Y tend to represent extremes of the natural inclination of managers towards a particular style of behaviour. In practice, however, the actual style of management behaviour adopted will be influenced by the demands of the situation.Where the job offers a mettle several(prenominal) degree of intrinsic satis itemion or involves a variety of tasks, an element of problem-solving and the exercise of initiative, or where output is difficult to measure in three-figure terms, an informal, participative approach would front to be more(prenominal) effective. I t is more likely to lead to a higher level of staff morale. In many cases this would apply to work of a scientific, technical or professional nature. Where commitment to the goals of the organisation is almost a prerequisite of membership, such as in certain voluntary or charity organisations, for example, then a Theory Y approach would clearly seem to be most appropriate.Use of a TheoryX approachHowever, even if a manager has a basic belief in Theory Y assumptions on that point may be occasions when it is necessary, or more appropriate, to adopt a Theory X approach. When the nature of the job itself offers minute intrinsic reward or limited opportunities to satisfy higher-level inescapably, a more despotic style of management might work best. Some jobs are designed narrowly, with passing predictable tasks, and output measured precisely. This is the case, for example, with many complex output processes in manufacturing firms. With these types of jobs a Theory X approach may b e directed if an adequate level of performance is to be maintained.MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESSThe faultfinder might describe efforts to turn Theory Y into practice as doing with difficulty what comes naturally to the Japanese. There, excellent managers apply principles of behaviour which translate perfectly into westerly language and which have long been echoed in the progressive areas of the west. Yet you still encounter the old ostrich attitudes that shelld western companies so much damage in the past for instance, the argument that to emulate Japan is impossible because of its peculiar culture. But the famous national enthusiasm for good business and effective management isnt simply a product of Japans culture. After all, sloppy western habits, like investing too little in productive capacity, cutting products, training, quality and marketing are hardly cultural not unless bad business economics are built into the western mentality.Robert Heller 12THE MANAGERIAL /LEADERSHIP GRIDOne means of describing and evaluating several(predicate) styles of management is the Blake and Mouton Managerial grid (see Figure 7.1). First published as the Managerial control grid in 1964, restated in 1978 and 198513 and republished in 1991as the Leadership Grid,14 the Grid provides a basis for comparison of managerial styles in terms of two principal dimensions business concern for productionconcern for people.Concern for production is the amount of emphasis which the manager places on accomplishing the tasks in hand, achieving a high level of production and getting results or profits. This is represented along the horizontal bloc of the Grid. Concern for people is the amount of emphasis which the manager gives to subordinates and colleagues as individuals and to their needs and expectations. This is represented along the vertical axis of the Grid.Five basic combinationsConcern for is not how much concern, but indicates the character and strength of assumpt ions which underlie the managers own basic attitudes and style of management. The square point is how the manager expresses concern about production or about people. The four corners and the centre of the Grid provide five basic combinations of degree of concern for production coupled with degree of concern for people (see Figure 7.1(a)).the impoverished manager (1,1 rating), low concern for production and low concern for people the authoritycompliance manager (9,1 rating), high concern for production and low concern for peoplethe country club manager (1,9 rating), low concern for production and high concern for people the middle-of-the-road manager (5,5 rating), moderateconcern for production and moderate concern for people andthe team manager (9,9 rating), high concern for production and high concern for people.Managers with a 1,1 rating tend to be remote from their subordinates and swear in the minimum movement from their present position. They do as little as they can with pro duction or with people. Too much attention to production will cause difficulties with staff and too much attention to the needs of staff will cause problems with production.Team managementThoughtful attention to theneeds of people for satisfyingrelationships leads to acomfortable, friendly organisationatmosphere andwork tempo.Concern for peopleWork accomplishment isfrom committed peopleinterdependence through a car park stake in organisationpurpose leads to relationshipsof go for and respect.Middle-of-the-road managementAdequate organisation performance ispossible through balancing the necessityto get work out while maintaining moraleof people at a satisfactory level.Impoverished managementAuthoritycompliancemanagementExertion of minimum effortto get required work makeis appropriate to sustainorganisation membership.Efficiency in operations resultsfrom arranging conditions ofwork in such a way thathuman elements interfereto a minimum degree.In Opportunistic management, people adap tand shift to any Grid style needed to gain the maximum good. Performance occurs according to asystem of selfish gain. Effort is given only for anadvantage or personal gain.9+9 Paternalism/maternalismReward and approval are bestowedto people in return for loyalty and subjection failure to comply leadsto punishmentFigure 7.1 The Leadership Grid(Source Blake, R. R. and McCanse, A. A. (1991) Leadership Dilemmas Grid Solutions, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (1991), Grid Figure, p. 29, Paternalism Figure, p. 30, Opportunism Figure, p. 31. Reproduced by permission of Grid International, Inc.)MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESSManagers with a 9,1 rating are autocratic. They tend to rely on a centralised system and the use of authority. Staff are regarded as a means of production and motivation is based on competition betwixt people in order to get work done. If staff challenge an instruction or standard procedure they are likely to be viewed as unco-operative. The 1,9 rating managers b elieve that a contented staff will undertake what is required of them and achieve a reasonable level of output. Production is secondary to the avoidance of conflict and livelihood of harmony among the staff. Managers will seek to find via medias between staff and solutions acceptable to everyone. Although innovation may be encouraged, they tend to reject good ideas if likely to cause difficulties among the staff.The 5,5 rating is the middle-of-the-road management with the approach of live and let live and a tendency to avoid the real issues. This style ofmanagement is the dampened pendulum with managers swinging between concern for production and concern for people. Under pressure, this style of management tends to become task management (9,1). Where this strains relations and causes resentment from staff, however, pressure is eased and managers adopt a compromise approach. If there is a swing too much the other(a) way (towards 1,9) managers are likely to take a tighter and more hardened approach.Managers with a 9,9 rating believe in the integrating of the task needs and concern for people. They believe in creating a situation whereby people can satisfy their own needs by commitment to the objectives of the organisation. Managers will discuss problems with the staff, seek their ideas and give them freedom of action. Difficulties in working relationships will be handled by confronting staff nowadays and attempting to work out solutions with them.These five styles of management represent the extremes of the Grid. With a nine-point scale on each axis there is a total of 81 contrary mixtures of concern for production and concern for people. Most people would come up with a score somewhere in an intermediary position on the Grid. two additionalgrid styles1991 edition of the Grid also covers two additional styles opportunism and 9+9 paternalism/maternalism, which take account of the reaction of subordinates.In opportunistic management, organisational performan ce occurs according to a system of exchanges, whereby effort is given only for an equivalent measure of the same. People adapt to the situation to gain maximum advantage of it. (See Figure 7.1(b).)In 9+9 paternalistic/maternalistic management, reward and approval are granted to people in return for loyalty and obedience and punishment is threatened for failure to comply (see Figure 7.1(c)).A summary of the seven-spot basic combinations of the Grid is given in Table 7.1.FRAME spiel FOR PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOURThe Managerial Grid provides a framework in which managers can identify, study and review their patterns of behaviour. Instead of viewing management styles as a dichotomy of either/or, Blake and Mouton claim that the Managerial Grid illustrates that the manager can gain the benefits of maximising, simultaneously, methods which are twain production-oriented and people-oriented. The 9,9 position, although an ideal, is worth working for.Based on their get word of using the origina l Grid, Blake and Mouton give three reasons why it is important to consider which style of management is used to achieve production through people.THE fibre OF THE MANAGERThe 7-SorganisationalframeworkIn order to get people to accept solutions, the manager needs continually to co-ordinate and balance in order to compromise conflicting values. Thedrawing card creates excitement in work and develops choices that give substance to images that excite people.In their relationships with other people, managers maintain a low level of aroused involvement. Leaders have empathy with other people and give attention to what events and actions mean.Managers see themselves more as conservators and regulators of the existing order of affairs with which they identify, and from which they gain rewards. Leaders work in, but do not belong to, the organisation. Their sense of identity does not depend upon membership or work roles and they search out opportunities for change.The differences between l eading and management have been applied by Watson to the 7-S organisational framework of strategy, structure, systems, style, staff, skills and superordinate (or shared) goals. Watson redes that whereas managers tend towards reliance onstrategy,structure,systems,leaders have an inherent inclination for utilisation of the soft Ss of style,staff,skills, andshared goals.Watson also suggests, although cautiously, that 7-S management could be seen as the province of leaders. Managers will not ordinarily be capable of achieving sufficient mastery of all seven factors to attain a consistently high level of organisational performance.Distinction between management and leadBased on experience of management approaches in both commerce and the military, Hollingsworth questions how many managers consider themselves first and foremost as leaders, relegating manager to their job title. He argues that commercial managers need to learn from the armed forces if they deal to be viewed as leaders. Having accepted that there are some links between management and leadership, Hollingsworth lists six fundamental differences.A manager administers a leader innovates.A manager maintains a leader develops.A manager focuses on systems and structure a leader focuses on people. A manager relies on control a leader inspires trust.A manager keeps an eye on the bottom line a leader has an eye on the horizon. A manager does things right a leader does the right thing.Not everyone would agree with this list. Robinson, for example, suggests that if the word manager is replaced by administrator then the lists works. However, whatever your view the list makes for a cooperative basis for critical discussion on the nature of management and leadership.25 In Chapter 6 we discussed management as getting work done through the efforts of other people. To be an effective manager it is necessary to exercise the role of leadership. A common view is that the job of the manager requires theability of leadershipCHAPTER 8 THE character OF LEADERSHIPTHE QUALITIES OR TRAITS APPROACHThe first approach assumes that leaders are born and not made. Leadership consists of certain inherited characteristics, or personality traits, which know leaders from their followers the so-called Great Person theory of leadership. The qualities approach focuses attention on the man or muliebrity in the job and not on the job itself. It suggests that attention is given to the selection of leaders rather than to training for leadership. For example, Drucker (writing originally in 1955) makes the point that Leadership is of utmost importance. Indeed there is no substitute for it. But leadership cannot be created or promoted. It cannot be taught or learned.There have been many research studies into the common traits of leadership. However, attempts at identifying common personality, or physical and mental, characteristics of different good or successful leaders have met with little success.Investigations have identified lists of traits which tend to be overlapping, contradictory or with little correlation for most features.It is noticeable that individuality or originality usually features in the list of traits. This itself suggests that there is little in common between particular(prenominal) personality traits of different leaders. It is perhaps possible therefore to identify general characteristics of leadership ability, such as self-confidence, initiative, intelligence and belief in ones actions, but research into this area has revealed little more than this. In a series of interviews with headhunters, and senior figures in industry and the city, Management Today came up with a list of Britains most powerful women in business. A conclusion from the list is that the top 50 women do not fit any pattern. They palm the kind of power and influence that defies stereotypes.Limitations ofthe traitsapproachThere are two further limitations with this approach.First, there is bound to b e some subjective judgement in determining who is regarded as a good or successful leader.Second, the lists of possible traits tend to be very long and there is not always contract on the most important.Even if it were possible to identify an agreed list of more specific qualities, this would provide little explanation of the nature of leadership. It would do little to help in the development and training of future leaders. Although there is still some interest in the qualities, or traits, approach, attention has been directed more to other approaches to leadership.The qualities or traits approach gives rise to the questions whether leaders are born or made and whether leadership is an art or a science. The important point, however, is that these are not mutually exclusive alternatives. Even if there are certain inborn qualities which make for a good leader, these natural talents need encouragement and development. Even if leadership is something of an art, it still requires the ap plication of special skills and techniques.THE FUNCTIONAL (OR GROUP) APPROACHThis approach to leadership focuses attention not on the personality of the leader, nor on the man or woman in the job, per se, but on the functions of leadership. Leadership is always present in any group engaged in a task. The functional approach views leadership in terms of how the leaders behaviour affects, and is affected by, the group of followers. This approach concentrates on the nature of the group, the followers or subordinates. Itfocuses on the content of leadership.WORK MOTIVATION AND REWARDSMaslows hierarchy of needs modelOnce a lower need has been satisfy, it no longer acts as a strong motivator. The needs of the next higher level in the hierarchy demand satisfaction and become the motivating influence. Only unsatisfied needs motivate a person. hence Maslow asserts that a satisfied need is no longer a motivator.Not necessarilya fixed orderAlthough Maslow suggests that most people have these basic needs in about the order indicated, he also makes it clear that the hierarchy is not necessarily a fixed order. There will be a number of exceptions to the order indicated. For some people there will be a reversal of the hierarchy, for exampleSelf-esteem may seem to be more important than love to some people. This is the most common reversal of the hierarchy. It is often based on the belief that the person most love is strong, confident or inspires respect. People quest love try to put on a show of aggressive, confident behaviour. Theyare not really seeking selfesteem as an end in itself but for the sake of love needs. For some innately creative people the drive for creativity and self-actualisation may arise disdain lack of satisfaction of more basic needs.Higher-level needs may be lost in some people who will continue to be satisfied at lower levels only for example, a person who has experienced chronic unemployment. Some people who have been deprived of love in early chi ldhood may experience the permanent loss of love needs.A need which has continued to be satisfied over a long period of era may be undervalued. For example, people who have never suffered from chronic hunger may tend to underestimate its effects, and regard food as rather an profitless thing. Where people are dominated by a higher-level need this may assume greater importance than more basic needs.People with high ideals or values may become martyrs and give up everything else for the sake of their beliefs.Maslow claims that the hierarchy is relatively universal among different cultures, but he recognises that there are differences in an individuals motivational content in a particular culture.THE INDIVIDUALDegrees ofsatisfactionMaslow points out that a false impression may be given that a need must be satisfied fully before a subsequent need arises. He suggests that a more naturalistic description is in terms of decreasing percentages of satisfactionalong levels of the hierarchy. For example, arbitrary figures for the average person may be satisfied 85 per cent in physiological needs 70 per cent in safety needs 50 per cent in love needs 40 per cent in esteem needs and 10 per cent in self-actualisation needs. There is a gradual emergence of a higher-level need as lower-level needs become more satisfied. The relative importance of these needs changes during the psychological development of the individual. Maslow subsequently modified his views by noting that satisfaction of self-actualisation needs by growth-motivated individuals can actually enhance these needs rather than reduce them. Furthermore, he accepted that some higher-level needs may still emerge after long deprivation of lowerlevel needs, rather than only after their satisfaction.Evaluation of Maslows theoryBased on Maslows theory, once lower-level needs have been satisfied (say at the physiological and safety levels) giving more of the same does not provide motivation. Individuals advance up the h ierarchy as each lower-level need becomes satisfied. Therefore, to provide motivation for a change in behaviour, the manager must direct attention to the next higher level of needs (in this case, love or social needs) that seek satisfaction.Applications tothe worksituationHowever, there are a number of problems in relating Maslows theory to the work situation. These include the followingA useful basisfor evaluationPeople do not necessarily satisfy their needs, especially higher-level needs, just through the work situation. They satisfy them through other areas of their life as well. Therefore the manager would need to have a complete understanding of peoples private and social life, not just their behaviour at work. There is doubt about the time which elapses between the satisfaction of a lower-level need and the emergence of a higher-level need.Individual differences mean that people place different values on the same need. For example, some people prefer what they might see as the comparative safety of working in a bureaucratic organisation to a more highly paid and higher status position, but with less job security, in a different organisation.Some rewards or outcomes at work satisfy more than one need. Higher salary or promotion, for example, can be applied to all levels of the hierarchy. Even for people within the same level of the hierarchy, the motivating factors will not be the same. There are many different ways in which people may seek satisfaction of, for example, their esteem needs. Maslow viewed satisfaction as the main motivational outcome of behaviour. But job satisfaction does not necessarily lead to improved work performance.Although Maslow did not originally intend that the need hierarchy should necessarily be applied to the work situation, it still form popular as a theory of motivation at work. Despite criticisms and doubts about its limitations, the theory has had a significant impact on management approaches to motivation and the design of organisations to meet individual needs. It is a convenient framework for viewing the different needs and expectations that people have, where they are in the hierarchy, and the different motivators that might be applied to people at different levels. The work of Maslow has drawn attention to a number of different motivators and stimulated study and research. The need hierarchy model provides auseful base for the evaluation of motivation at work. For example, Steers and Porter suggest a list of general rewards and organisational factors used to satisfy different needs (see Table 12.1).29WORK MOTIVATION AND REWARDSApplying Maslows need hierarchyNeeds levels habitual rewardsOrganisational factors1 PhysiologicalFood, water, sex, sleepa. Payb. Pleasant working conditionsc. Cafeteria2. SafetySafety, security,stability, protectiona. Safe working conditionsb. Company benefitsc. Job security3. SocialLove, affection,belongingnessa. glutinous work groupb. Friendly supervisionc. Professiona l associations4. EsteemSelf-esteem, self-respect,prestige, statusa. Social recognitionb. Job titlec. High status jobd. Feedback from the job itself5. Self-actualisationGrowth, advancement,creativitya. Challenging jobb. Opportunities for creativityc. Achievement in workd. Advancement in the organisationSaunders contends that despite the time that has elapsed, Maslows theory remains watertight.When prehistoric man first took shelter in a cave and lit a fire, he was satisfying his lowest physiological and safety needs. When a Buddhist achieves a state of nirvana, she is satisfying the fifth and highest self-actualisation The cave these days might be a three-bedroom semi with garden and off-street parking, but the fact remains that once weve got enough to feed, clothe and house our families money is a low-level motivator for most people. The dash for cash is soon replaced by the bank for recognition, status and ultimately (although Maslow reckoned that a lot of us never get this far) the need to express yourself through your work.Pyramid ofemployeecommitmentRevisiting and developing Maslows hierarchy, Stum looked at the dynamic between an individual and the organisation, and proposes a new employee/employer social contract that enables organisations to improve employee commitment and retention. The five levels of workforce needs hierarchy are shown in a Performance Pyramid.Safety/security the need to feel physically and psychologically safe in the work environment for commitment to be possibleRewards the need for extrinsic rewards in compensation and benefits Affiliation the intrinsic need for a sense of belonging to the work team or organisationGrowth addressing the need for positive individual and organisational change to drive commitmentWork/life harmony the drive to achieve a sense of bound in balancing work and life responsibilities.